Agri Machinery

Tillage Equipments

Tillage history Types of tillers Kinds of tillage equipment Secondary tillage Secondary tillage history Types of tillages Minimum tillage equipment Rotary tillers development of history Types of rotary tillers Disc plough Disc tiller development Types of disc ploughs Plough Types of ploughs Indegenous plough Bundformer Greenmanure trampler Harrows Mouldboard plough Ridger Puddler

Tillage history

Tillage is the preparation of the soil for planting and the process of keeping it loose and free from weeds during the growth of crops.
The primary objectives of fundamental purposes of tillage are divided into three phases: (1) to prepare a suitable seedbed, (2) to destroy competitive weeds and (3) to improve the physical condition
of the soil.
The basic tillage operation is the breaking of the soil in the preparation of a suitable seedbed.
The breaking and loosening of the soil is the oldest phase of village as it includes the various types of plows.
Prehistorically, it is assumed that man used crude tools of wood or other material with which he could loosen the soil.
Perhaps a broken branch of a tree was the first tillage tool available.
Later he learned to use fire or stone hand tools to fashion a soil-strirring tool from a fork of a tree by burning or hacking off one branch, leaving the longer for the beam and the trunk part for a handle.
Still later, he was able to use miral power to pull the plow.

History of Flow

The plow is probably the oldest agricultural tool.
The recorded history in the form of hieroglyphs and cuneiform characters shows that the ancients had a plow thousands of years B.C.
It is recorded that about 900 B.C.
Elisha as found "plowing with twelve yoke of oxen before him".
The wooden plow with a metal share has been used for many centuries, and millions of wooden plows are still is use today.
The parts of the wooden plow were usually held together by animal thongs as there were no nails, bolts, or haywire available.
The Roman plow which was improved by the Dutch, was imported into England about 1730.
The Ensex plow of about 1756 had an iron moldboard.
The Norfolk sheel plow of 1721 had a cast-iron share and an iron rounded moldboard.
A curved moldboard made its appearance in 1760 on the Suffolk swing plow.
The Rotherham plow was improved by James Small, who wrote a book on plow design in 1984.
The close of the eighteenth century saw the chage in England from the wooden plow to the iron plow.
In American, Thomas Jefferson and Daniel Webster were among the first to advance improvements of the plow.
Charles Newbold of Burlington, New Jersey, secured the first patont on a cast-iron plow in 1797.
Farmers rejected this iron plow because say thought it poisoned the soil; Jethro Wood developed a moldboard in 1814 of such curvature as to turn the soil in even furrows.
The first steel plow was made from three sections of an old handsaw by John Lane about 1833.
He also secured in 1868 a patent for soft-center steel, which is used at the present time in making moldboard for plows. In 1837, John Deere at Grand Detour, Illinois, made a steel plow (share and moldboard in one piece) from an old sawmill saw.
Ten years later be established factory at Moline, Illinois.
James Oliver was granted a patent in 1868 for hardening cast iron which was own as chilled iron.
In 1856, M. Furley patented a single-bottom sulky or wheel plow which permitted the operator to ride.
In 1864, F.S. Davenport patented a riding two-bottom horse drawn gang plow.
Three-and four-bottom gang plows often required ten to twelve horses to pull them.
The large ten-to fifteen-bottom plows were pulled by steam tractors in the 1890's by the large, slow, cumbersom gasoline-engine tractors from about 1900 to 1910.
The early two-to five-bottom trailing-tractor plows were equipped with hand-lever lifts.
In the early twenties, mechanical power lifts were developed.
They were used until the hydraulic lift was introduced in the forties.
The integral tractor-mounted unit assembly and unit-lifted plow were developed in the early forties by Ferguson.
This type of plow is now becoming popular on small and average sized farms.

Disc plow

was probably developed about 1890. Models were listed in implement catalogues by 1895.
One of the earliest patents for a disk plow was secured by M.A. and I.M. Cravath, Bloomington, Illionois. J.K. Underwood, D.H. Lane, and M.T. Hancock made improvements on the disk plow and made it practical.
Since 1900, the development of the disk plow has followed trends similar to that of the moldboard plow.

Influence of the flow on man

When man grasped a crooked stick and began to till the soil, he took his first step toward civilization.
With each phase in the development of the plow, there has been a corresponding advance in civilization.
In the beginning, one man, even though he gave all his time and energy to the task, could till only a small acreage.
Later, animal power was applied and the acreage per man was increased.
Now, with the large amount of mechanical power available, the acreage per man has been very materially increased.
Thus, man can now produce more foods tuff than is necessary for his own sustenance and can furnish food to many who are working at other tasks.
Hence, we can say that the flow is the foundation of civilization.
In the production of all kinds of crops and in the preparation of a seedbed for them, the plow is the first tool used, and it is thus the basic tool of the farm.
With the plow the ground is broken and pulverized into small particles, trash on the surface may be left on the surface or completely covered.
One not familiar with the nature of the soil, the influence of water, air, and temperature upon its physical condition, and the action of the plow upon it may think that the plow is a very simple tool, requiring very little adjustment and practically no care at all.
But those who are familiar with soil conditions and the plow adjustments necessary to obtain the best results know that good planning is not a simple matter.
Optimum plowing requires the consideration of numerous factors.

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Types of tillers

Disc tillers vary considerably in the flexibility of the disc cylinder.
The rigid type has a single axle.
Some larger tillers have several independent disc cylinders or gangs.
To provide flexibility these gangs all operate at the same angle, but each gang can move up and down separately over uneven terrain.
Another flexible type has the axle jointed at intervals, making a snake-like flexible cylinder for working uneven ground.
The flexible types can be shortened to suit the power available.
The trailing type is pulled from the tractor drawbar.
It is supported entirely by its won three wheels
The semi-mounted tiller has a two-point, fairly rigid attachment to the tractor drawbar.
The load is partly on the drawbar and partly on the rear furrow wheel

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Kinds of tillage equipment

Tillage equipment can be divided into two general classes, namely, (1) primary tillage equipment and (2) secondary tillage equipment.
Equipment that is used to break deeply and loosen the soil to prepare a suitable seedbed may be considered as primary tillage equipment. This group includes various kinds of moldboard ploughs, disc ploughs, subsoil ploughs or chisles, disc tiller ploughs and rotary tillers.
Secondary tillage equipment includes harrows, pulverizers, cultivators, weeders, and special tools for surface tillage to conserve moisture and destroy weeds.

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Secondary tillage

The term secondary tillage in this discussion means stirring the soil at a comparatively shallow depth (0 to 6 inches).

The action of the plough does not usually prepare an ideal seedbed.
Unless the plough is working in an ideal, mellow soil, further pulverization of the soil will generally be necessary before planting.
As the young plants develop certain amounts of cultivation and weed eradication will be required.
The equipment used to perform these operations are known as secondary tillage implements.
The first implements to prepare the soil for sowing probably originated simultaneously with primitive ploughs.
They were dry branches of various shapes drawn by men or occasionally by animals.
It was not until the Roman era that the toothed harrow with wooden teeth (Fig. 151) appeared.
In time, the shape of the harrow frame was altered.
In the Middle Ages, harrows consisting of several bars tied crosswise were used. at the beginning of the nineteenth century, wooden harrows with rigid tines were produced on the pattern of harrows with spring tines.
At the end of the nineteenth century cultivators for deep tillage were designed and were used to replace ploughs to some extent.
The first patent for a disc harrow in the United States was obtained in 1867.
About then the Higganum Corporation at Higganum, Connecticut, began making disc harrows commercially.
The disc blades used before 1886 were all plain, perfectly smooth around the edge.
In that year, George N. Clark, president of the Higganum Corporation, cut curved ntoches in the rim of the discs and used the term "cutway" to describe this disc harrows.
Regular disc harrows, had become quite popular by 1900.
In 1925, the offset disc harrow was designed to work under the branches of fruit trees.

The general objectives are

To improve the seedbed by greater pulverization of the soil.
To conserve moisture by summer-fallow operations to kill weeds and reduce evaporation.
To cut up crop residue and cover crops and mix vegetable matter with the top soil.
To break up clods, firm the top soil and put it in better tilth for seeding and germination of seeds.
To destroy weeds on fallow lands.
In general a good secondary tillage operation is possible after proper adjustment. An even better job is dependent upon the attention shown to the operation by the operator. The pictures below give an idea of a desirable soil consistency after harrowing.

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Secondary tillage history

Secondary tillage equipments

Types of secondary tillage equipment

There are many types of machines that can be used for secondary tillage.
They are the various types of harrows (disc, spike tooth, spring tooth), cultivators, land rollers and packers and rotary hoes.

Types of disc harrows

The disc harrow first attained wide popularity during the latter part of the nineteenth century.
It is now second only to moulboard plough in its importance as a tillage implement in dry land farming.
Disc harrows may be classified according to their gang configuration as in Fig. 153 or according to whether they are trailed or mounted.

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Types of tillages

There are various types of tillage.

Minimum Tillage	It is the minimum soil manipulation necessary to meet tillage requirements for crop production
Strip Tillage	It is a tillage system in which only isolated bands of soil are tilled.
Rotary Tillage	It is the tillage operations employing rotary action to cut, break and mix the soil.
Mulch Tillage	It is Preparation of soil in such a way that plant residues or other mulching materials are specially left on a near the surface.
Combined Tillage	Operations simultaneously utilizing two or more different types of tillage tools or implements to simplify, control or reduce the number of operations over a field are called combined tillage. Tillage is performed by tool, implement or machine.
Tool	It is an individual working element such as disc or shovel.
Implement	It is equipment generally having no driven moving parts, such as harrow or having only simple mechanism such as plough.
Machine	It is a combination of rigid or resistant bodies having definite motions and capable of performing useful work.

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Minimum tillage equipment

The following paragraphs suggest ways in which minimum tillage can be accomplished.
Primary and secondary tillage, as well as planting, are operations that an be accomplished simultaneously under certain conditions.
It is economically convenient and less soil compaction occurs, but some other factors may indicate the convenience of performing these operations at different times.

plough Packer

This minimum tillage operation uses a roller packer behind the mouldboard plough, Both implements are operated by the same tractor.
The plough-packer works best on loam and lighter soils having some cover other than heavy sod.
The plough packer does as little tillage as any of the once-over implements.
Experiments, however, have shown that it is sufficient as long as adequate crop stands are obtained.
This tiller is especially good for heavy soils.
The blades press the furrows down and exert some packing below the surface.
At the same time, the tune does some smoothing.
This action does more to correct ploughing defects than the plough packer.
Draft is about twice that needed for the packer.
The packer can also be used in front of the planter during the next operation, but it is not so effective because the clods are drier and harder to break.
A spite harrow can also be used instead of the packer.
It can do a good if its width is twice that of the plough so as to cover the soil twice.
The spike harrow is known by all farmers, and most of them have one probably discarded.
One section makes a good light-draft minimum tillage implement.
The teeth must be set slanting so the frame drags and levels the soil.
It is convenient to hitch the harrow in such a way that it is lifted together with the plough.
It is important because spike harrows collect trash.
The rotary hoe, run backward, serves very wall as a minimum tillage tool.
It crumbles lumps and presses down partly turned furrows.
The rotary hoe, run backward, does a little presenting of furrows and breaks soft lumps.
In amount of tillage performed and in draft, it compares favorably with the plough packer.

The circuit tiller

Ttills and firms the soil by the turning action of a wheel which lies almost flat on the ground.
The slight pitch of the wheel causes it to turn.
A small gauage wheel holds it in position.
Figure 39.
This circular tiller revolves as it is pulled behind the plough.
You can add weight to the wheel for more firming.

The spring tooth harrow

it does not do a satisfactory job because it pulls up trash and grass.
On the other hand, the draft is considerably higher than for any of the tools described above.

Plough packer with grain drill

A grain drill covering just the width of the plough is hitched behind the plough packer unit described before.
It works well when ploughing can be done at planting times. In some cases the soil may be too dry at that time for ploughing.
Heavy compacted soils may have to be ploughed some time before planting in order to store some water for germination and the first stage of plant growth.

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Rotary tillers development of history

Although there has been a marked increase of interest in rotary plow and tillers in the United States during the last few years, the principle of rotary tillage is not new.
Patents on devices of this type were issued as early as 1850-1860, but it was not until about 1910 that a successful rotary tiller using the elastic-claw principle with a staggered arrangement, was developed by Von Meyenberg of Switzerland.
Swissrade rotary plows or tillers were introduced into the United States in about 1930, and soon afterwards several American manufacturers started making this type of equipment.
It has only been rather recently that this type of tillage has experienced any real interest.
The reason for the lack of interest was high cost, high power requirements and poorer weed control.

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Types of rotary tillers

Rotary tillers are available as

Garden type

self-propelled units (two wheel, 8 to 30 inches wide and 6 to 15 H.P. engines).
The garden-type rotary tillers have proved themselves practical and effective for preparing seedbeds from unploughed ground for nurseries, greenhouses, vegetable crops, lawn planting, and similar jobs.
These narrow machines are also suitable for shallow cultivation and weed control between rows of certain crops.

Trailed or tractor-mounted units with p.t.o. drives

This type is usually 3 to 4 feet wide and requires 10 to 15 horesepower for each foot of width.
The cutting knives or tines are generally mounted on a horizontal power driven shaft which operates at about 300 r.p.m.
The knives on some machines are provided with a shock-cushioned friction clutch that prevents the knives from breaking when they come in contact with a rock o solid obstacle.

Trailed units with auxillary engines

This rotary tiller is pulled forward by a tractor but has the cutting knives driven by an auxillary engine mounted on the frame of the plough.
This type of plough is made in 4 to 7-foot sizes and requires 60 to 100 horsepower.
The cutting knives are mounted on a horizontal power-driven shaft.

Field-type, self-propelled machines (0 to 8 ft. cut, with engines as large as 180 h.p.

Rotary tillers may also be classified by the position of the soil engaging rotor.
Most of the rotary tillers used in the United States have a horizontal axis for the rotating knives
In Europe, tillers with a vertical axis for the rotating knives are also common
There are some differences in the designers of frame work and drive mechanism to the two types.
There are also some slight differences in their particular use of operation, but basically they do the same job and have the same limitations.

Development

The disc tiller is also called the disc-plough, vertical disc-plough, one-way disc-plough, harrow plough, Wheatland plough, cylinder plough, tiller disc-plough and one-way disc. i.e. consider "disc tiller" the most suitable name.
The disc tiller was developed in the Great Plains area of the United States about 1927. It was designed primarily as a one-way disc harrow. As its use spread, farmers began to adopt it for shallow ploughing. Improvements have made the tool into a popular and widely used plough.
The speed of the plough should not be over 4 m.p.h. High-speed operation increases the power requirements, causes too much pulverizing of the surface soil, and does not leave trash on the surface to prevent wind erosion.
This implement is about halfway between the standard disc-plough and the disc harrow in its soil working actions.
It carries the discs at approximately a 45-degree angle to the travel direction cutting the throwing all the soil in the same direction. The discs are smaller than on a disc-plough, usually 16 to 24 inches in diameters, and have no scrapers to assist in inverting the soil.
They cut shallower and narrower than those on the disc-plough, usually making a cut approximately 4-inches in width. They mix the soil with the trash instead of inverting the furrow slice and covering the trash.
This mixing action retards drifting and blowing and keeps the soil in excellent condition to receive and hold moisture. Because the disc tiller is primarily a mixing tool, the draft is lower per foot than with the disc-plough.
Thus the same power, can pull a wider implement, cover more ground, and work faster than with the disc-plough. Where trash mixed through the top soil is not objectionable and where it is not necessary to work the soil deeply, a disc tiller can be substituted for a disc or moldboard plough.
As the name Wheatland suggests, these implements were originally developed for the preparation of wheat land. The disc tiller is not a universal tool like the moldboard plough; it is limited to certain regions.

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Disc plough

It is a plough which cuts, turns and in some cases breaks furrow slices by means of separately mounted large steel discs.
A disc plough is designed with a view to reduce friction by making a rolling plough bottom instead of sliding plough bottom.
A disc plough works well in the conditions where mouldboard plough does not work satisfactorily.

Advantages of disc plough

Disadvantages of disc plough

Types of disc plough

Disc ploughs are of two types:
(i) Standard disc plough and (ii) Vertical disc plough.

Standard disc plough

It consists of steel disc of 60 to 90 cm diameter, set at a certain angle to the direction of travel. Each disc revolves on a stub axle in a thrust bearing, carried at the lower end of a strong stand which is bolted to the plough beam (Fig. 8).
The angle of the disc to the vertical and to the furrow wall is adjustable.
It action, the disc cuts the soil, breaks it and pushes it sideways.
There is little inversion of furrow slice as well as little burying of weeds and trashes.
The disc plough may be mounted type or trailed type. In mounted disc plough, the wheels of the tractor take the side thrust.
Sometimes a rear wheel is fitted to take side thrust of the plough to some extent.
It trailed type; the furrow wheel of the plough takes side thrust.
Disc is made of heat-treated steel of 5 mm to 10 mm thickness.
The edge of the disc is well sharpened to cut the soil.
The mount of concavity varies with the diameter the disc.
The approximate values being 8 cm for 60 cm diameter disc and 16 cm for 95 cm diameter.
A few important terms connected with disc plough explained below:

Disc

It is a circular, concave revolving steel plate used for cutting and inverting the soil.

The rotovator

It consists of 16 curved tines bolted on a horizontal power
driven shaft.
On this shaft 8 times are bent at edge in right hand side and another eight in the left hand side.
The times are so arranged to give uniform cutting load on the shaft.
Rotovator ploughs, pulverises mixes and levels dry and wet lands.
Rotovator is used for pudding also in the previously ploughed land.
It replaces cultivator, disc harrow and puddler.
It converts crop residuals as manure.
Rotovator offers a package of benefits to the farmers like getting a better seed bed, weed control, improvement of humus content and soil structure.

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Disc tiller development

The disc tiller is also called the disc-plough, vertical disc-plough, one-way disc-plough, harrow plough, Wheatland plough, cylinder plough, tiller disc-plough and one-way disc. i.e. consider "disc tiller" the most suitable name.
The disc tiller was developed in the Great Plains area of the United States about 1927.
It was designed primarily as a one-way disc harrow.
As its use spread, farmers began to adopt it for shallow ploughing.
Improvements have made the tool into a popular and widely used plough. The speed of the plough should not be over 4 m.p.h.
High-speed operation increases the power requirements, causes too much pulverizing of the surface soil, and does not leave trash on the surface to prevent wind erosion.
This implement is about halfway between the standard disc-plough and the disc harrow in its soil working actions.
It carries the discs at approximately a 45-degree angle to the travel direction cutting the throwing all the soil in the same direction.
The discs are smaller than on a disc-plough, usually 16 to 24 inches in diameters, and have no scrapers to assist in inverting the soil.
They cut shallower and narrower than those on the disc-plough, usually making a cut approximately 4-inches in width.
They mix the soil with the trash instead of inverting the furrow slice and covering the trash.
This mixing action retards drifting and blowing and keeps the soil in excellent condition to receive and hold moisture.
Because the disc tiller is primarily a mixing tool, the draft is lower per foot than with the disc-plough. thus the same power, can pull a wider implement, cover more ground, and work faster than with the disc-plough. Where trash mixed through the top soil is not objectionable and where it is not necessary to work the soil deeply, a disc tiller can be substituted for a disc or moldboard plough.
As the name Wheatland suggests, these implements were originally developed for the preparation of wheat land.
The disc tiller is not a universal tool like the moldboard plough; it is limited to certain regions.

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Types of disc ploughs

As with moldboard ploughs, disc ploughs are also classified by (1) their method of hitching to the tractor (i.e., direct mounted, semi-mounted and trailing) and (2) whether to plough is reversible or not.

Integral mounted ploughs

They are usually to the tractor by three-point linkages.
They can be raised or lowered by the hudraulic system.
Most can be attached in less than a minute.
They are usually rear-mounted and have a rear wheel to absorb the side thrust.
But some are mounted ahead of the rear wheels.
A rear furrow wheel on an integral mounted disc plough may serve to counteract side pressures, hold the plough in alignment, and act as a gage wheel for ploughing depth.
The depth in some makes is controlled by adjusting the hydraulic lift.

Semi-mounted disc plough

The semi-mounted disc plough is also called a direct-connected blow.
The front of this plough is connected to and mounted on the tractor, thus diminating the front furrow wheel and the land wheel (See Figure 120).
A furrow steel supports the rear end.
This close-coupled plough is compact and easy to handle.
It is easy to maneuver because short turns can be made, enabling the operator to close to fences.
It can also be backed into corners.
The rear wheel is automatically controlled from the steering mechanism at the front of the plough hydraulic lift raises the front of the plough high enough so it can be turned and transported easily.

Development History

Although there has been a marked increase of interest in rotary plough and tillers in the United States during the last few years, the principle of rotary tillage is not new.
Patents on devices of this type were issued as early as 1850-1860, but it was not until about 1910 that a successful rotary tiller using the elastic-claw principle with a staggered arrangement, was developed by Von Meyenberg of Switzerland.
Swissrade rotary ploughs or tillers were introduced into the United States in about 1930, and soon afterwards several American manufacturers started making this type of equipment
It has only been rather recently that this type of tillage has experienced any real interest. The reason for the lack of interest was high cost, high power requirements and poorer weed control.

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Plough

The main implement for primary tillage is ploughed used for ploughing operations.
Ploughing is the primary tillage operation, which is performed to cut, break and invert the soil partially or completely.
Ploughing essentially means opening the upper crust of the soil, breaking the clods and making the soil suitable for sowing seeds.

The purpose of ploughing can be summarized as below

To obtain a deep seed bed of good texture.
To increase the water holding capacity of the soil.
To improve soil aeration
To destroy weeds and grasses.
To destroy insects and pests.
To prevent soil erosion and
To add fertility to the soil by covering vegetation.

Normal Ploughing

It is the ploughing up to a depth of about 15 cm.

Contour Ploughing

It is the method of ploughing in which the soil is broken and turned along the contours.

Types of Plough

Different types of plough are used to different places.

They may be classified as

Indigenous plough
Mouldboard plough
Disc plough
Chisel plough
Sub soiler
Rotary plough.

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Types of ploughs

Different types of plough are used to different places.

They may be classified as

Indigenous plough
Mouldboard plough
Disc plough
Chisel plough
Sub soiler
Rotary plough.

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Indegenous plough

Indigenous plough is most commonly used in this country.
The shape and size of the plough varies with places and regions due to variation in soil types and tillage requirements.
The main parts of the plough are: (i) body (ii) share (iii) shoe (iv) beam (v) handle.

Body

It is the main frame to which the shoe, beam and handle are attached.

It is a narrow steel bar attached to the upper surface of the shoe longitudinally along the centre line and projecting slightly out.
The shoe, beam and the handle are generally attached to the body of the plough.
The Share is attached to the shoe which penetrates into the soil and breaks it open.
The shoe also helps in stabilizing and balancing the plough while in operation.
The plough is provided with a wooden beam and a handle.

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Bundformer

It is used for making bunds or ridges by collecting the soil (Fig. 15).
Bunds are required to hold water in the soil, thereby conserve moisture and prevent run off.
The size of the bund former is determined by measuring the maximum horizontal distance between the two rear ends of the forming boards.
Bund former consists of: (i) Forming board (ii) Beam (iii) Handle.

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Green manure trampler (Animal drawn)

It is an implement used to trample and press the green manure crop in the fields (Fig. 16).
There are two types of trampler: (i) Slat type and (ii) Disc type.
In slat type trampler, long radial slats are fixed to the central axle through the supporting disc.
In disc type trampler, flat discs are fixed to the central axle.
The size of the trampler is its maximum working width.
weight of the green manure trampler (without beam) lies between 30 kg to 40 kg only.
The main parts of the trampler are:
Frame (ii) Axle and bearings (iii) Disc or slat (iv) Foot board and (v) Handle.

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Harrows

A harrow is an implement that cuts the soil to a shallow depth for smoothening and pulverising the soil as well as to cut the weeds and to mix materials with soil.
It is an implement used to break the clods after ploughing, to collect trash from the ploughed and to level the seed bed.

Harrowing

It is secondary tillage operation which pulverises, smoothens and packs the soil in seed bed preparation and / or control weeds.

There are several types of harrow used in India, such as:
Disc harrow
Triangualr harrow
Spring tooth harrow
Bodela
Spike tooth harrow
Zig-zag harrow
Blade harrow (Bakhar)
Bindha
Guntaka
Other harrows.

Disc Harrow

It is a harrow which performs the harrowing operations by means of a set (or a number of sets) of rotating steel discs, each set being mounted on a common shaft. Disc harrows are of two types depending upon the sources of power. (a) Tractor drawn
(b) Animal drawn

Tractor drawn disc harrow

Disc harrow is found very suitable for hard ground, full of stalks and grasses.
It cuts the lumps of soil, clods and roots. Discs are mounted on one, two or more axles which may be set at a variable angle to the line of motion.
As the harrow is pulled ahead, the discs rotate on the ground.
Depending upon the disc arrangements, disc harrows are divided into two classes: (a) Single action and (b) Double action.

Single action disc harrow

It is a harrow with two gangs placed end to end, which throw the soil in opposite directions.
The discs are arranged in such a way that right side gang throws the soil towards right, and left side gang shows the soil towards left (Fig. 11).

Double action harrow

A disc harrow consisting of two or more gangs, in which a set of one or two gangs follow behind the set of the other one or two, arranged in such a way that the front and back gangs throw the soil in opposite directions (Fig. 11).
Thus the entire field is worked twice in each trip.
It may be of two types: (a) Tandem and (b) Off-set.

Tandem disc harrow

It is a disc harrow comprising of four gangs in which each gang can be angled in opposite direction (Fig. 12).

Off-set disc harrow

It is a disc harrow with two gangs in tandem, capable of being off-set to either side of the centre line of pull.
Two gangs are fitted one behind the other (Fig. 12).
The soil is thrown in both directions because discs of both gangs face in opposite directions.
It is very useful for orchards and gardens.
It travels left to right of the tractor.
The line of pull is not in the middle, that's why it is called off-set disc harrow (Fig. 13).
Off-set disc harrow is based on the basic principle that side thrust against the front gang is opposed by the side thrust of the rear gang.
Hence the gangs are arranged at suitable angles so that both thrusts are counter balanced with each other.

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Mouldboard plough

A mouldboard plough is very common implement used for primary tillage operations (Fig. 2).
This plough performs several functions at a time.

Functions

cutting the furrow slice
lifting the soil
turning the furrow slice and
pulverising the soil.

Components

M.B. Plough consists of (Fig. 3):
Share (b) Mouldborad (c) Land side (d) Frog and (e) Tailpiece.

It is that part of the plough bottom which penetrates into the soil and makes a horizontal cut below the surface.

Mouldboard

It is the curved part which lifts and turns the furrow slice.

Landside

It is the flat plate which bears against and transmits the rear side lateral thrust of the plough bottom to the furrow wall.

Frog

It is the part to which other components of the plough bottom are attached.

Tail piece

It is an adjustable extension, which can be fastened to the rear of a mould board to help in turning a furrow slice.

It penetrates into the soil and makes a horizontal cut below the soil surface (Fig. 4).
It is sharp, well-polished and pointed component. Different portions of the share are called by different names such as:
(1) Share point (2) Cutting edge (3) Wing of share (4) Gunnels (5) Cleavage edge and (6) Wing bearing.

Share point	It is the forward end of the cutting edge which actually penetrates into the soil (Fig. 4)
Cutting edge	It is the front edge of the share which makes horizontal cut in the soil (Fig. 4). It is beveled to some distance.
Wing of share	It is the outer end of the cutting edge of the share. It supports the plough bottom (Fig. 4).
Gunnel	It is the vertical face of the share which slides along the furrow wall. It takes the side thrust of the soil and supports the plough bottom against the furrow wall (Fig. 4).
Cleavage edge	It is edge of the share which forms joint between mouldboard and share on the frog (Fig. 4).
Wing bearing	It is the level portion of the wing of the share, providing a bearing for the outer corner of the plough bottom.
Material of share	The shares are made of chilled cast iron or steel. The steel mainly contains about 0.70 to 0.80% carbon and about 0.50 to 0.80% manganese besides other minor elements.

Type of share

Share is of different types such as:
Slip share
Slipnose share
Shin share and
Bar point share.

Slip share

It is one piece share with curved cutting edge, having no additional part.
It is a common type of share, mostly used by the farmers, It is simple in design, but it has got the disadvantage that the entire share has to be replaced if it is worn out due to constant use (Fig. 5a).

Slipnose share

It is a share in which the point of share is provided by a small detachable piece.
It has the advantage that share point can be replaced as and when required.
If the point is worn out, it can be changed without replacing the entire share, effecting considerable economy (Fig. 5b).

Shin share

It is a share having a shin as an additional part.
It is similar to the slip share with the difference that an extension is provided to it by the side of the mouldboard (Fig. 5c).

Bar point share

It is a share in which the point of the share is provided by an adjustable and replaceable bar.
This bar serves the purpose of point of the share and land side of the plough (Fig. 5d).

Mouldboard

The mouldboard is that part of the plough which receives the furrow slice from the share.
It lifts, turns and breaks the furrow slice.
To suit different soil conditions and crop requirements, mouldborad has been designed in different shapes.
The mouldboard is of following types: (a) General purpose (b) Stubble (c) Sod or Breaker and (d) Slat.

General purpose

It is a mouldboard having medium curvature lying between stubble and sod.
The sloping of the surface is gradual (Fig. 6a).
It turns the well-defined furrow slice and pulverizes the soil thoroughly.
It has fairly long mouldboard with a gradual twist, the surface being slightly convex.

Stubble type

It is a short but broader mouldboard with a relatively abrupt curvature, which lifts breaks and turns the furrow slice used in stubble soils.
It curvature is not gradual but it is abrupt along the top edge (Fig. 6b).
This causes the furrow slice to be thrown off quickly, pulverising it much better than other types of mouldboard.
This is best suited to work in stubble soil that is under cultivation for years together. Stubble soil is that soil in which stubble of the plants from the previous crop is still left on the land at the time of ploughing.
This type of mouldborad is not suitable for lands full of grasses.

Sod or Breaker type

It is a long mouldboard with gentle curvature which lifts and inverts the unbroken furrow slice (Fig. 6c).
It is used in tough soil of grasses.
It turns over thickly covered soil.
This is very useful where complete inversion of soil is required by the farmer.
This type has been designed for use in sod soils.

Slat type

It is a mouldboard whose surface is made of slats placed along the length of the mouldboard so that there are gaps between the slats (Fig. 6d).
This type of mouldboard is often used, where the soil is sticky, because the solid mouldboard does not scour well in sticky soils.

Land side

It is the flat plate which bears against and transmits lateral thrust of the plough bottom to the furrow wall.
It helps to resist the side pressure exerted by the furrow slice on the mouldboard.
It also helps in stabilizing the plough while it is in operation.
Land side is fastened to the frog with the help of plough bolts.
The rear bottom end of the land side is known as heel which rubs against the furrow sole.

Frog

Frog that part of the plough bottom to which the other components of the plough bottom are attached (Fig. 7).
It is an irregular piece of metal. It may be made of cast iron for cast iron ploughs or it may be welded steel for steel ploughs.

Tail piece

It is an important extension of mouldboard which helps in turning a furrow slice.

Plough accesories

There are a few accessories necessary for ploughs such as: (i) Jointer (ii) Coulter (iii) Gauge wheel (iv) Land wheel and (v) Furrow wheel.

Jointer

It is a small irregular piece of metal having a shape similar to an ordinary plough bottom.
It looks like a miniature plough. Its purpose is to turn over a small ribbon like furrow slice directly in front of the main plough bottom.
This small furrow slice is cut from the left and upper side of the main furrow slice and is inverted so that all trashes on the top of the soil are completely turned down and buried under the right hand corner of the furrow slice is cut from the left and upper side of the main furrow slice and is inverted so that all trashes on the top of the soil are completely turned down and buried under the right hand corner of the furrow.

Coulter

It is device used to cut the furrow slice vertically from the land ahead of the plough bottom.
It cuts the furrow slice from the land and leaves a clear wall.
It also cuts trashes which are covered under the soil by the plough.
The coulter may be: (s) Rolling type disc coulter or (b) Sliding type knife coulter.

Rolling type disc coulter

It is a round steel disk which has been sharpened on the edge and suspended on a shank and yoke from the beam.
The edge of the coulter may be either smooth or notched.
It is so fitted that it can be adjusted up-down and side ways.
The up-down adjustment takes care of depth and sideways adjustment is meant for taking care of width of cut.

Sliding type knife coulter

It is a stationary knife fixed downward in a vertical position on the beam.
The knife does not roll over the ground but slides on the ground.
The knife may be of different shapes and sizes.
Gauge wheel: It is an auxiliary wheel of an implement to maintain an uniform depth of working.
Gauge wheel helps to maintain uniformity in respect of depth of ploughing in different soil conditions.
It is usually placed in hanging position.

Land wheel

It is the wheel of the plough which runs on the unploughed land.

Front furrow side

It is the front wheel of the plough which runs in the furrow.

Rear furrow wheel

It is rear wheel of the plough which runs in the furrow.

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Ridger (Animal drawn)

It is an implement, which cuts and turns the soil in two opposite directions simultaneously for forming ridges.
It is also known as furrower.
Ridger is used to form ridges, for sowing row crop seeds and plants in well tilled soil.
The ridger is also used for forming field furrows or channels, earthing up and similar other operations.
Ridgers are also known by the names ridging plough and double mouldboard plough.
The ridger generally has V-shaped or wedge-shaped share, fitted to the frog.
The nose or the tip of the share penetrates into the soil and breaks the earth.
The mouldboards lift, invert and cast aside the soil, forming deep channels and ridges of the required size.
A ridger consists of beam, clevis, frog, handle, mouldboards, braces, share and sliding shoe.

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Puddler (Animal drawn)

It is an implement used for churning the soil in standing water.
Puddler is used for preparation of paddy fields with standing water after initial ploughing.
It breaks up the clods and churns the soil.
The main purpose of puddling is to reduce leaching of water, to kill weeds by decomposing and to facilitate the transplanting of paddy seedlings by making the soil softer.
Puddling is done in a standing water of 5 to 10 cm depth.
A common puddler used in this country has three puddling units, each having four paddles mounted on a axle (Fig. 14).
The axle with the puddling units is freely mounted on two bearing, fitted on a frame, made of metal or wood.
The weight of the puddler including its beam is within range of 30 to 40 kg only.
The puddler consists of

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Agri Machinery

Services Overview

The key services offered by Ikisan are:

System study, design and development of IT enabled solutions and services for the agri sector.

Execution of rural IT enabled projects on BOT/BOOT/Turnkey basis.

Development, Customization and Deployment of Ikisan's IPR protected software applications.

Providing support services and best management practices for augmenting the marketing development efforts of the groups agricultural input companies (NFCL and NACL).

Development and Dissemination of best practice and information though a unique multi lingual knowledge website for the agri sector.

Some of the key customers/partners that benefit significantly from our work include are Electronics Corporation of India Ltd, State Agricultural Marketing Boards, Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Tamilnadu, Centre for Development of Advanced Computing, Motorola Mobility (GOOGLE) etc.

As highlighted earlier Ikisan provides significant support to the market development and marketing efforts of NFCL and NACL by providing best practices and information across the agricultural input value chain - weather, soil, seeds, fertilizers, water, pesticides, output prices etc. that have enabled the companies to develop deep customer relationships and in turn enable them to grow above market growth rates. Recently example in fertilizers includes the development of Customized Fertilizer Grades (for NFCL across India that are crop and location specific have not only reduced the current consumption of fertilizers of farmers but have significantly enhanced crop yields and farmer incomes) that are expected to add significant revenues to the company.

Currently, agriculture value chain is driven by technical expertise. However, there is a lack of adequate Management knowledge and skills amongst the professionals. Therefore, Ikisan and XLRI, Jamshedpur have jointly developed an Agri Business Management Program for Agri-professionals and students. Ikisan provides the domain expertise while XLRI provides pedagogy. This program is a combination of virtual learning and campus based module at XLRI, Jamshedpur. This program has been highly appreciated.

Intellectual Property Rights for many software applications such as Field Manager, Vyapar, Mandi, Quick Solutions Systems, Management Time Table, Agri Information System and Agrecommerz belong to Ikisan. A significant recent development in this area is the introduction of Weather Based Crop Insurance. This entails setting up of Automatic Weather Stations, which provide dynamic village-level data essential for settlement of weather based insurance claims.